Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Reference Philosophy

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

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• - By Lex Newman of the University of Nebraska, Lincoln.
  
• - Life and work of French Cartesian philosopher; by Tad Schmaltz.
  
• - Introduction to classical logic, including completeness and Löwenheim-Skolem theorems; by Stewart Shapiro.
  
• - Survey of philosophical woories about inconsistencies inherent in the idea of time travel in the context of modern physics. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Tim Maudlin.
  
• - The theistic thesis that God has maximal power; by Joshua Hoffman and Gary Rosenkrantz.
  
• - Propositions about a particular object or individual in virtue of having the object or individual as a constituent of the proposition. By G. W. Fitch.
  
• - The result of a process of reflection on an area of (moral) inquiry, a notion figuring prominently in Rawls' Theory of Justice; by Norman Daniels.
  
• - By Carl Matheson of the University of Manitoba.
  
• - Survey of the dynamical reduction program; by Giancarlo Ghirardi.
  
• - Life and work of this 13th-century philosopher, theologian, and lyric poet. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Colleen McCluskey.
  
• - Branch of ethics dealing with the moral relationship of humans to the environment; by Andrew Brennan and Yeuk-Sze Lo.
  
• - Survey of justice as a virtue from Plato to Rawls; by Michael Slote.
  
• - Survey of work of Thomas Hobbes; by Sharon A. Lloyd.
  
• - Movement in cognitive science which hopes to explain human intellectual abilities using artificial neural networks. By James W. Garson of the University of Houston.
  
• - By Roberto Torretti, Universidad de Chile.
  
• - Survey of philosophical views on the character and status of events; by Roberto Casati and Achille Varzi.
  
• - Life and work of 19th century British legal philosopher and founder of legal positivism; by Brian Bix.
  
• - By Frank Arntzenius of Rutgers.
  
• - Life and work of 14th Century British philosopher, follower of Wyclif and Burley; by Alessandro Conti.
  
• - Explores semantic accounts of propositional attitude reports, and some of the theories developed to deal with Frege's puzzle. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Thomas J. McKay.
  
• - Life and work of 13th century logician and author of the Tractatus; by Joke Spruyt.
  
• - Von Neumann and Morgensterns mathematical theory of bargaining, introduced by Don Ross University of Cape Town.
  
• - Discussion of theory reduction in science; by Robert Batterman.
  
• - By William Lycan, University of North Carolina.
  
• - Study of the details and some of the implications of the measurement problem. By Henry Krips of the University of Pittsburgh.
  
• - Describes Everett's attempt to solve the measurement problem by dropping the collapse dynamics from the standard von Neumann-Dirac theory of quantum mechanics. By Jeffrey A. Barrett.
  
• - By Edwin D. Mares, Victoria University of Wellington.
  
• - Survey of forms of scepticism about moral knowledge; Walter Sinnott-Armstrong.
  
• - Moral issues of desert (punishment, success) and justice; by Owen McLeod.
  
• - Discussess the impact of social relations and values on scientific research; by Helen Longino.
  
• - By James Robert Brown, University of Toronto.
  
• - Qualia are introspectively accessible, phenomenal aspects of our mental lives. By Michael Tye.
  
• - Survey by Jenann Ismael.
  
• - Philosophical theories about judgments of taste; by Nick Zangwill.
  
• - Life and work of 19th century German philosopher; by Robert Wicks.
  
• - By Allan Franklin, University of Colorado.
  
• - Life and work of 19th century American philosopher; by Russell Goodman.
  
• - Survey of philosophical views about privacy; by Judith DeCew.
  
• - Survey of social and political equality; by Stefan Gosepath.
  
• - Peter Forrest introduces the principle of analytic ontology formulated by Leibniz, stating that no two distinct substances exactly resemble each other.
  
• - By Julian Lamont, University of Queensland.
  
• - Life and work of early 20th century Spanish-born American philosopher; by Herman Saatkamp.
  
• - By Barry Miller.
  
• - Entry by A.D. Irvine discussing Russell and Whitehead's treatise.
  
• - Discussion of Franz Brentano's foundation for logic and epistemology; by Johannes Brandl.
  
• - Philosophical theories on what makes a species; by Marc Ereshefsky.
  
• - Views on the moral difference between doing harm and allowing harm; by Frances Howard-Snyder.
  
• - By Dominic Hyde.
  
• - Survey of Scottish Enlightenment philosophers, including Francis Hutcheson, Henry Home (Lord Kames), and George Campbell; by lexander Broadie.
  
• - Survey of the work of William Hamilton, James Frederick Ferrier, and Alexander Bain; by Gordon Graham.
  
• - By John Greco of Fordham.
  
• - By Chris Mortensen, University of Adelaide.
  
• - Discussion of notion of verisimilitude, closeness to truth; by Graham Oddie.
  
• - Discusses the paradoxes of Zeno of Elea, e.g., Achilles and the Tortoise; by Nick Huggett.
  
• - The view that there are objects which are the same F yet not the same G; by Harry Deutsch.
  
• - Theories which explain conscious states by their relations to higher-order representations of them; by Peter Carruthers.
  
• - Survey of theories on legal reasoning; by Julie Dickson.
  
• - A distinction introduced by W. E. Johnson to apply, e.g., to red and colored; by David H. Sanford.
  
• - The theory of parthood relations: of the relations of part to whole and the relations of part to part within a whole; by Achille Varzi.
  
• - Life and work of 18th century American philosophical theologian; by William Wainwright.
  
• - By Gyula Klima.
  
• - By Jay F. Rosenberg.
  
• - Edward N. Zalta of the Metaphysics Research Lab.
  
• - By John Bickle and Peter Mandik.
  
• - Article on the ethics of war and peace, the Just War theory, and pacificsm. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Brian D. Orend.
  
• - Life and work of 19th centuruy American logician and philosopher; by Robert Burch.
  
• - Survey of feminist writing on the philosophical canon; by Charlotte Witt.
  
• - Discussion of how sense experience justifies or warrants beliefs about the physical world; by Lawrence BonJour.
  
• - The thesis that propositions are made true in virtue of corresponding to facts; by Marian David.
  
• - Discussion of Aristotle's ethical views; by Richard Kraut.
  
• - Survey of medieval views concerning the nature and ontological status of relations; by Jeffrey Brower.
  
• - Life and work of Saadya Gaon (Saadya ben Joseph, known in Arabic as Sa'id ‘ibn Yusuf al-Fayyûmî, 10th century theologian, philosopher and rabbi; by Sarah Pessin.
  
• - In 1921, David Hilbert made a proposal for a formalist foundation of mathematics, for which a finitary consistency proof should establish the security of mathematics. By Richard Zach.
  
• - According to the Representational Theory of Mind, psychological states are to be understood as relations between agents and mental representations. By David Pitt, CUNY.
  
• - Discussion of various descriptive and normative definitions of the term; Bernard Gert.
  
• - By Carsten Held.
  
• - Life and work of 18th century Scottish philosopher; by William Edward Morris.
  
• - Originally the study of deductive behavior of the expressions `it is necessary that' and `it is possible that', now also includes logics for belief, tense, the deontic (moral) expressions. By James W. Garson, University of Houston.
  
• - Philosophical issues related to collective action; by Russell Hardin.
  
• - Theory about the permissibility of non-consensual force violating property rights in external things and oneself; by Peter Vallentyne.
  
• - Definition of Pantheism by Michael P. Levine of the University of Western Australia.
  
• - The theories of proprietates terminorum was the basis of medieval semantic theory; by Stephen Read.
  
• - Justifications of legal punishment; by Antony Duff.
  
• - Life and work of 19th century British philosopher; by Laura J. Snyder.
  
• - From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Anthony Celano.
  
• - The original position is a hypothetical situation in which rational calculators, acting as agents or trustees for the interests of concrete individuals, are pictured as choosing those principles of social relations under which their principals would do be
  
• - An interpretation of quantum theory which discards the notions of absolute state of a system, absolute value of its physical quantities, or absolute event; by Federico Laudisa and Carlo Rovelli.
  
• - By Greg Restall of Macquarie University.
  
• - According to the deflationary theory of truth, to assert that a statement is true is just to assert the statement itself. By Daniel Stoljar.
  
• - Recounts the principal and distinctive claims of Aristotle's psychological writings, especially "De Anima." By Christopher Shields of the University of Colorado.
  
• - Historical survey of the concept of moral responsibility; by Andrew Eshleman.
  
• - By E. Jennifer Ashworth of the University of Waterloo.
  
• - Survey of automated deduction and theorem proving; by Frederic Portoraro.
  
• - How quantum mechanics can be regarded as a non-classical probabilistic calculus; by Alexander Wilce.
  
• - Exploring Hume's argument and the religious significance. By Michael P. Levine of the University of Western Australia.
  
• - By Stewart Candlish of the University of Western Australia.
  
• - Survey of game-theoretical approaches to logic; by Wilfrid Hodges.
  
• - Life and work of German philosopher of egoism; by David Leopold.
  
• - By Robin Le Poidevin.
  
• - Introduced by Jon Pérez Laraudogoitia from the University of the Basque Country.
  
• - By Rosemarie Tong, Davidson College.
  
• - Philosophical issues in homosexuality and queer theory; by Brent Pickett.
  
• - The thesis that there are no merely possible entities; by Christopher Menzel.
  
• - Life and work of 17th century French philosopher; by Kurt Smith.
  
• - Life and work of 14th century French theologian; by Christopher Schabel.
  
• - The thesis that science discovers truths about a theory-independent reality; by Richard Boyd.
  
• - Life and work of this founder of Neoplatonism; by Lloyd Gerson.
  
• - Survey of attempts to draw the distinction between concrete and abstract objects; by Gideon Rosen.
  
• - Timon (c. 320-230 BC) was the younger contemporary and leading disciple of Pyrrho; by Richard Bett.
  
• - Life and work of one of the most original and interesting philosophers of the later Middle Ages. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Robert Pasnau.
  
• - By Risto Hilpinen of the University of Miami.
  
• - Discussion of analysis of causal statements in terms of counterfactual conditionals; by Peter Menzies.
  
• - By Fred D'Agostino.
  
• - Survey of divine command theory; by Mark Murphy.
  
• - Discusses mathematical approaches to normative epistemology; by Oliver Schulte.
  
• - Theories about intentional action and agency; by George Wilson.
  
• - By Colin Allen of Texas A & M.
  
• - By Douglas Bridges from Waikato University.
  
• - Discussion of philosophical implications of Christian theological views; by Michael Murray.
  
• - By Terence Parsons.
  
• - History of the political activity and theorizing founded in the shared experiences of injustice of members of certain social groups; by Cressida Heyes.
  
• - Life and Work of Robert Holcot, 14th Century English philosopher and theologian; by Hester Gelber.
  
• - Discusses introduction of philosophy into the school curriculum; by Michael Pritchard.
  
• - Philosophical theories about what it is to be a law; by John W. Carroll.
  
• - Life and work of French Enlightenment philosoher; by Michael LeBuffe.
  
• - By Graham Priest and Koji Tanaka.
  
• - By A. D. Irvine.
  
• - Life and work of 18th century Italian philosopher; by Timothy Costelloe.
  
• - Article on Turing Machines from the Stanford Encyclopedia.
  
• - The philosophical theopry that the mind is, or functions like, a computer; by Steven Horst.
  
• - Theory developed to analyze paradoxes that appear to show that common-sense beliefs about truth are inconsistent. By Eric M. Hammer.
  
• - By William Sweet of St. Francis Xavier University.
  
• - Survey of work of, among others, Christian Thomasius and Christian Wolff; by Brigitte Sassen.
  
• - Life and work of this German Enlightenment philosopher; by Gwen Griffith-Dickson.
  
• - The doctrine that God cannot undergo real change; by Brian Leftow.
  
• - Infinitary Logic is a branch of formal logic where finitary formulae are replaced by potentially infinitary mathematical entities. By John L. Bell.
  
• - By Randolph Clarke.
  
• - Aims to establish that conscious experience involves non-physical properties. It is one of the most discussed arguments against physicalism; by Martine Nida-Rümelin.
  
• - Philosophical justifications of punishment; by Hugo Adam Bedau.
  
• - By Ian Ravenscroft, the Flinders University of South Australia.
  
• - Paul Redding of the University of Sydney.
  
• - Life and work of 13th century Italian poet and philosopher; by Winthrop Wetherbee.
  
• - Robert Wicks, University of Auckland.
  
• - Proposal due to Alan Turing for a criterion of the presence of mind or consciousness; by Graham Oppy and David Dowe.
  
• - By Edward N. Zalta of Stanford University.
  
• - Survey article on multiple-valued logics, by Siegfried Gottwaldof of Leipzig University.
  
• - Short article by Roberto Casati of the École Polytechnique and Achille C. Varzi of Columbia.
  
• - "Probabilistic Causation" designates a group of philosophical theories that aim to characterize the relationship between cause and effect using the tools of probability theory. A primary motivation for the development of such theories is the de
  
• - Augustine's doctrine described by Robert Pasnau of the University of Colorado.
  
• - By Michael Mendelson of Lehigh University.
  
• - Entry in the Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy by Chris Swoyer. Principally concerned with existence and identity conditions.
  
• - History and discussion of the notion of the immune self; by Alfred Tauber.
  
• - History and philosophical accounts of unity of consciousness; by Andrew Brook.
  
• - The life and work of the Chinese philosopher and educatory; by Jeffrey Riegel.
  
• - Life and work of Speusippus of Athens, son of Plato's sister Potone and head of the Academy; by Russell Dancy.
  
• - Survey of logical systems with a continuum of truth values; by Petr Hajek.
  
• - By Stephen Thornton from the University of Limerick.
  
• - First interpretation of quantum mechanics due to Nields Bohr; by Jan Faye.
  
• - Life and work of 18th century Scottish philosopher; by Gideon Yaffe.
  
• - Biographical and expository essay by John Preston of Reading University.
  
• - By Ann E. Cudd, University of Kansas.
  
• - The study of mind and intelligence. By Paul Thagard of the University of Waterloo.
  
• - How does a person stay the same person over time? By Eric T. Olson.
  
• - Survey of Aristotle's logical work, focus on the "Organon," syllogistic, and dialectic. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Robin Smith.
  
• - Life and work of fourth century BC Greek mathematician, political leader and philosopher; by Carl Huffman.
  
• - Life and work of early Greek medical writer and philosopher-scientist; by Carl Huffman.
  
• - By Roy Sorensen.
  
• - Jean-Pierre Marquis of the University of Montreal introduces the general mathematical theory of structures and systems of structures.
  
• - The historical development and conceptual structure of philosophical analysis; by Michael Beaney.
  
• - Philosophical theories about the nature of explanation in science; by James Woodward.
  
• - By Robert M. Martin, Dalhousie University.
  
• - Deals with the cosmological argument. By John Leslie of the University of Guelph.
  
• - Occam (1287-1347) was one of the most important philosophers of the Middle Ages. By Paul Vincent Spade.
  
• - Life and work of medieval philosopher and member of the Modists; by Jack Zupko.
  
• - Assesses the metaphysical implications of quantum theory by considering the impact of the theory on our understanding of objects as individuals with well defined identity conditions. By Steven French of Leeds University.
  
• - By A. D. Irvine.
  
• - By Nigel Thomas of Leeds University.
  
• - Philosophical theories about the difference between animals and humans responsible for the moral status of humans. By Lori Gruen.
  
• - Two movements in ancient philosophy, Pyrrhonism, and Academic Skepticism. By Leo Groarke.
  
• - By Eric M. Hammer of Stanford.
  
• - Discusses naturalistic theses in the philosophy of law; by Brian Leiter.
  
• - The life and work of the founder of Pyrrhonism; by Richard Bett.
  
• - Life and work of 20th Century metaphysician and philosopher of religion; by Dan Dombrowski.
  
• - Bernard Linsky, University of Alberta.
  
• - Discussion of the distinction between knowledge and craft, or art in ancient philosophy; by Richard Parry.
  
• - By Fred D. Miller, Jr of Bowling Green State University.
  
• - By Colin Allen of Texas A & M, addressing the qualitative or phenomenological nature of experience.
  
• - Survey of views on moral impartiality; by Troy Jollimore.
  
• - Discussion of David Hilbert's development of this type of logical formalism with emphasis on proof-theoretic methods; by Jeremy Avigad and Richard Zach.
  
• - Discussion of a semantic paradox due to Haskell B. Curry; by J. C. Beall.
  
• - Life and work of 20th century American philosopher; by Bjørn Ramberg.
  
• - Metaphysical and epistemological accounts of color. By Barry Maund of the University of Western Australia.
  
• - Life and work of 19th century German philosopher; by Douglas Moggach.
  
• - Life and work of 20th century German philosopher and critical theorist; by Lambert Zuidervaart.
  
• - The hole argument is an attempt to illustrate how spacetime substantivalism causes errors in a large class of spacetime theories. By John D. Norton of the University of Pittsburgh.
  
• - John Bickle discusses the contention that a given mental kind (property, state, event) is realized by distinct physical kinds.
  
• - Discussion of the thesis that everything is physical; by Daniel Stoljar.
  
• - By Mark Kulstad and Laurence Carlin.
  
• - The view that normative properties depend only on consequences; by Walter Sinnott-Armstrong.
  
• - Life and work of 18th century English philosopher; by Michael Gill.
  
• - Discussion of integrity as a virtue term; by Damian Cox, Marguerite La Caze, and Michael Levine.
  
• - View that puts processes at the center of metaphysics; by Nicholas Rescher.
  
• - In-depth article on the life, work, and thought of John Duns Scotus. By Thomas Williams.
  
• - The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on the subject, with a detailed description, application areas and a bibliography.
  
• - Stoicism was one of the new philosophical movements of the Hellenistic period. By Dirk Baltzly.
  
• - Life and work of Polish phenomenologist, ontologist and aesthetician; by Amie Thomasson.
  
• - Evaluates the theory that holds that states and processes of the mind are identical to states and processes of the brain. By J. J. C. Smart of Monash.
  
• - By Peter Forrest.
  
• - By Robert M. Gordon, University of Missouri.
  
• - Article on the life and work of the founder of philosophical anarchism. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Mark Philp.
  
• - Survey of analyses of the concept of knowledge, including justified true belief and the Gettier problem; by Matthias Steup.
  
• - Biographical and expository essay, by Ralph McInerny.
  
• - By A. D. Irvine.
  
• - Discussion of a formula to calculate conditional probabilities which figures in subjectivist approaches to epistemology; by James Joyce.
  
• - By Simo Knuuttila of the University of Helsinki.
  
• - The view that epistemology is of one piece with natural science; by Richard Feldman.
  
• - To say that propositions are structured is to say that they are complex entities, entities having parts or constituents. By Jeffrey C. King.
  
• - Survey of the view that claims of necessity and possibility are to be construed as fictional claims; by Daniel Nolan.
  
• - Survey of views on the social dimension of knowledge; by Alvin Goldman.
  
• - Historical survey from Babbage onward; by B. Jack Copeland.
  
• - Life and work of 19th century mathematician and philosopher of mathematics; by Ivor Grattan-Guinness and Alison Walsh.
  
• - Discussion of philosophical issues related to biological diversity; by Daniel P. Faith.
  
• - Realism and the representation problem; by Drew Khlentzos.
  
• - Theory and history of the binary connective 'or'; by Ray Jennings.
  
• - Life and work of 14th century German logician and philosopher; by Joël Biard.
  
• - Discussion of philosophical issues about death; by Steven Luper.
  
• - By Michael J. Murray, Franklin & Marshall College.
  
• - The view that all human beings belong to a single community; by Pauline Kleingeld and Eric Brown.
  
• - Detailed biographical article by B. Jack Copeland of the University of Canterbury.
  
• - Life and work of 19th century Austrian philosopher; by Dan Breazeale.
  
• - Discussion of one of Aristotle's major works; by Christof Rapp.
  
• - Discussion of Ernst Mally's logic of obligation; by Gert-Jan Lokhorst.
  
• - Discusses philosophical views about cosmology in the 1930s and 1940s; by George Gale.
  
• - By Elizabeth Anderson.
  
• - Interpretations of René Descartes' ontology of necessities and possibilities; by David Cunning.
  
• - Life and work of 17th century Irish philosopher and physicist; by J. J. McIntosh, University of Calgary.
  
• - By Steven T. Kuhn of Georgetown University.
  
• - Jack Copeland of the University of Canterbury, New Zealand outlines this frequently misunderstood thesis.
  
• - By Allen I. Janis, University of Pittsburgh.
  
• - Dialeth(e)ism is the view that there are true contradictions. By Graham Priest of the University of Queensland.
  
• - Modern notion of political authority of supreme authority within a territory; by Dan Philpott.
  
• - By George Graham of University of Alabama at Birmingham.
  
• - Social theory and philosophy issues in globalization; by William Scheuerman.
  
• - Jeff Malpas of the University of Tamania.
  
• - Life and work of 19th century English philosopher and proponent of women's rights; by Dale E. Miller.
  
• - Survey of the mathematical theory of the infinite; by Thomas Jech.
  
• - Discusses the view that mental events are caused by physical events in the brain, but have no effects upon any physical events. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by William S. Robinson.
  
• - The principles L. E. J. Brouwer used in developing his intuitionistic mathematics. By Joan R. Moschovakis, UCLA.
  
• - The ability to act on the determinations of conscience is tied to the development of the moral virtues, which in turn refines the functions of conscience. By Doug Langston of the University of South Florida.
  
• - Survey of naturalistic epistemology which emphasizes importance of natural selection; by Michael Bradie and William Harms
  
• - By Thomas Williams, University of Iowa.
  
• - Life and work of 15th Century Oxford Realist philosopher; by Alessandro Conti.
  
• - Epistemological movement based on Bayesian confirmation and decision theory; by William Talbott.
  
• - Frames of reference relative to which motion and rest are measured; by Robert DiSalle.
  
• - The doctrine that mind is a fundamental feature of the world which exists throughout the universe; by William Seager.
  
• - By Stewart Candlish from the University of Western Australia.
  
• - Discussion of the connection between phenomenal consciousness and intentionality; by Charles Siewert.
  
• - Life and work of philosopher and mathematician Alan Mathison Turing; by Andrew Hodges.
  
• - The truth of any (true) proposition consists in its coherence with some specified set of propositions. By James O. Young.
  
• - When a truth-bearer is true, there is a truth-maker with which it is identical and the truth of the former consists in its identity with the latter. By Stewart Candlish.
  
• - By Diana Meyers of the University of Connecticut.
  
• - Does the world contain undesirable states of affairs that provide the basis for an argument that makes it unreasonable for anyone to believe in the existence of God?; by Michael Tooley.
  
• - Survey of theories according to which knowledge and justified belief rest ultimately on a foundation of noninferential knowledge or justified belief. By Richard Fumerton of the University of Iowa.
  
• - The view that some or all of the mental states posited by common-sense do not actually exist; by William Ramsey.
  
• - Gerald F. Gaus outlines the general philosophical theory of liberalism.
  
• - Discusses implications of general relativity for the philosophy of time; by Steven Savitt.
  
• - By Lawrence Sklar.
  
• - Introduction to logical form, surface and deep meaning. By Paul M. Pietroski, University of Maryland.
  
• - An article describing tropes by John Bacon.
  
• - Discussion of how altruistic behavior by organisms fits with the theory of evolution; by Samir Okasha.
  
• - Life and work of contemporary and critic of Kant; by Peter Thielke and Yitzhak Melamed.
  
• - Bertrand Russell, Wesley Salmon, and conserved quantities. By Phil Dowe of the University of Tasmania.
  
• - Survey of philosophical theories about what it is to govern oneself; by Sarah Buss.
  
• - By Leo Groarke, Wilfrid Laurier University.
  
• - Interpretation of quantum mechanics due to Hugh Everett according to which many universes exist in parallel at the same space and time; by Lev Vaidman.
  
• - Essay about Kierkegaard's life, work, and philosophy by William McDonald.
  
• - Life and work of the 18th century German philosopher; by Michael Forster.
  
• - Survey of the algebra of two-valued logic; by J. Donald Monk.
  
• - Discusses cases of conflicting moral requirements; by Terrance McConnell.
  
• - Life and work of 17th century Cartesian philosopher; by Patricia Easton.
  
• - Discussion of René Descartes ontological proof of the existence of God; by Lawrence Nolan.
  
• - By Murat Aydede, surveying the arguments for and against the proposition that thoughts are expressed in a mental language.
  
• - William Sweet of St. Francis Xavier University introduces the absolute idealist.
  
• - Approaches to geometry that do not presuppose an infinity of points; by Jean-Paul van Bendegem.
  
• - Richardus Sophista was an English philosopher/logician who studied at Oxford most likely sometime during the second quarter of the thirteenth century. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Paul Streveler.
  
• - The philosophy of childhood takes up philosophically interesting questions about childhood, about conceptions people have of childhood and attitudes they have toward children; by Gareth Matthews.
  
• - Survey of theories on the conditions of legal validity including natural law theories and legal positivism; by Andrei Marmor.
  
• - Survey of realism and anti-realism in various forms; by Alexander Miller.
  
• - Discussion of Plato's views on metaphysics and the theory of knowledge, including his theory of forms; by Allan Silverman.
  
• - Influential 17th century British political philosopher.
  
• - Life and work of 17th century Dutch Rationalist philosopher; by Steven Nadler.
  
• - Aristotle's notions of category and substance; by S. Marc Cohen.
  
• - Philosophical survey of the idea that government should be limited in its powers by law; by Wil Waluchow.
  
• - The view that people should get the same or be treated the same; by Richard Arneson.
  
• - The claim that there are no defensible moral principles; by Jonathan Dancy.
  
• - By Robert Young, La Trobe University.
  
• - Comprehensive article by Richard Healey of the University of Arizona.
  
• - An argument due to Blaise Pascal for believing, or for at least taking steps to believe, in God. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Alan Hájek.
  
• - By Fred D'Agostino, University of New England, Australia.
  
• - Ontological arguments are arguments, for the conclusion that God exists, from premisses which are supposed to derive from some source other than observation of the world. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Graham Oppy.
  
• - Life and work of late Medieval philosopher; by Jack Zupko.
  
• - By Mark Colyvan, University of Tasmania.
  
  

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